MODERATING EFFECT OF EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND BEHAVIOURAL OUTCOMES IN ACADEMIA IN PAKISTAN
Keywords:
Gender Discrimination, Behavioural Outcomes, Job Satisfaction, Turnover Intention, Job StressAbstract
Employers, who are socially responsible, are considered to be better organizations because they provide discrimination-free workplace environment. Previous literature on gender discrimination has majorly focussed on one aspect—sexual harassment. However, there are dimensions of this social issue which are also important but less attention has been given to them. Similarly, the majority of previous researches on gender discrimination have been conducted in developed countries within industrial settings with little attention to developing countries within academic settings. The current study is an attempt to fill this gap by utilizing a multidimensional model within the cultural perspective of Pakistan. This study examined several behavioural outcomes of gender discrimination within the faculty members of public sector universities of Pakistan. The study also examined the interacting effect of emotional attachment (affective commitment) on the relationships of gender discrimination and its behavioural outcomes. Data was gathered from 313 faculty of the public sector universities. The model of the study is evaluated using Structural Equation Modelling with the help of AMOS version 21. Results of the study revealed that gender discrimination positively affects turnover intention and job stress, while have a negative association with job satisfaction. The results of the study also uncovered unique results regarding the interacting effect of emotional attachment (affective commitment) on the relationships of gender discrimination and its outcomes. These findings would help all the stakeholders to look into possible ways to promote a positive work environment.References
Abbas, D. Q., Hameed, A., & Waheed, A. (2011). Gender Discrimination
& Its Effect on Employee Performance/Productivity. International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(15), 171-176.
Abeer, I., & Faisal, T. (2013). Impact of gender bias on organizational
commitment: an empirical study of glass ceiling practices in corporate
sector of Pakistan. Elixir Human Res. Mgmt, 57, 14111-14115.
Ahmad, M. S., Fakhr, Z., Ali Shah, I., & Zaman, K. (2010). Measuring
push, pull and personal factors affecting turnover intention: a
case of university teachers in Pakistan. Review of Economic and
Business Studies (REBS)(5), 167-192.
Ahmad, R. (2010). Direct and interactive effects of organizational jusitce
and perceptions on personal and organizational outcomes. Ph.D
International Islamic University, Pakistan.
Al-Zawahreh, A., & Al-Madi, F. (2012). The Utility of Equity Theory in
Enhancing Organizational Effectiveness. European Journal of
Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences(46), 158-170.
Anne, M. (1996). The New Leaders: Leadership Diversity in America. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bakhsh, A., Kumar, K., & Rani, E. (2009). Organizational Justice Perceptions
as Predictor of Job Satisfaction and Organization Commitment.
International Journal of Business Management, 4(9), 145-154.
Barak, Nissley, & Levin. (2001). Antecedents to retention and turnover
among child welfare, social work and other human services
employees: What can we learn from past research? A review and
meta-analysis. Social Service Review, 75(4), 625-638.
Bilkis, A., Habib, S., & Sharmin, T. (2010). A Review of Discrimination in
Employment and Workplace. ASA University Review, 4(2), 137-150.
Byrne, B. M. (1998). Structural Equation Modeling with LISREL, PRELIS,
and SIMPLIS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming.
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Byrne, Z. S. (2005). Fairness reduces the negative effects of organizational
politics on turnover intentions, citizenship behavior and job
performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 20(2), 175-200.
Channar, Z. A. (2010). Gender Discrimination in Workforce Through Stickey
Floor and Glass Ceiling Effects: A Study of Public and Private
Organizations of Pakistan. Ph.D, Isra University, Hyderabad, Pakistan.
Cheng, E. W. (2001). SEM being more effective than multiple regression
in parsimonious model testing for management development
research. Journal of management development, 20(7), 650-667.
Chung, Y. B. (2001). Work Discrimination and Coping Strategies:
Conceptual Frameworks for Counseling Lesbian, Gay, and
Bisexual Clients. The Career Development Quarterly, 50(1), 33-
44. doi: 10.1002/j.2161-0045.2001.tb00887.x
Dekker, I., & Barling, J. (1998). Personal and Organizational Predictors
of Workplace Sexual Harassment of Women by Men. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 3(1), 7-18.
Dipboye, R., & Colella, A. (2005). Discrimination at work: The
psychological and organizational bases. New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Doleac, J. L., & Hansen, B. (2016). Does “ban the box” help or hurt low-skilled
workers? Statistical discrimination and employment outcomes when
criminal histories are hidden: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Elsik, L. G. (2009). The impact of gender discrimination on organizational
commitment and job satisfaction among female employees: Texas
A&M University-Kingsville.
Falkenburg, K., & Schyns, B. (2007). Work satisfaction, organizational
commitment and withdrawal behaviours. Management Research
News, 30(10), 708-723.
Felicia, C., & Octavian, M. (2012). Gender Discrimination in Management:
theoretical and Empirical Perspective. Transylvanian Review of
Administrative Sciences, 35, 153-172.
Foley, S., Hang-Yue, N., & Wong, A. (2005). Perceptions of Discrimination
and Justice: Are There Gender Differences in Outcomes? Group
and Organisation Management, 30(4), 421-450.
Foley, S., Ngo, H.-y., & Loi, R. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of
perceived personal gender discrimination: a study of solicitors
in Hong Kong. Sex Roles, 55(3-4), 197-208.
Gellatly, R., Meyer, J., & Luchak, A. (2006). Combined effects of the three
commitment components on focal and discretionary behaviors:
A test of Meyer and Herscovitch’s propositions. Journal of
Vocational Behavior 69, 331-345.
Griffeth, R., Hom, P., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of antecedents and
correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research
implications for the millennium. Journal of Management, 26, 463–488.
Groff, K. (2012). Examining the Moderating Role of Organizational
Commitment in the Relationship between Shocks and Workplace
Outcomes. Doctor of Philosophy, University of South Florida, Florida.
Hair, J. F., Tatham, R. L., Anderson, R. E., & Black, W. (2006).
Multivariate data analysis (Vol. 6): Pearson Prentice Hall Upper
Saddle River, NJ.
Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research
in organizational Behavior, 32, 113-135.
Hunton, J., Neidermeyer, P., & Weir, B. (1996). Hierarchical and gender
differences in private accounting practice. Acconting Horizons,
10(2), 14-31.
Hussain, T., & Asif, S. (2012). Is employees’ turnover intention driven by
organizational commitment and perceived organizational support.
Journal of Quality and Technology Management, 8(2), 1-10.
ILO. (2007). Equality at work: Tackling the challenges. Geneva: International
Labour Office.
Iyer, A., & Ryan, M. K. (2009). Why Do Men andWomen Challenge
Gender Discrimination in theWorkplace? The Role of Group
Status and In-group Identification in Predicting Pathways to
Collective Action. Journal of Social Issues, 65(4), 791-814.
Iyigun, O., & Tamer, I. (2012). The Impact of Percieved Organizational
Justice on Turnover Intention: Evidence from an International Electronic
Chain Store Operating in Turkey. Journal of Global
Strategic Management, 11, 5-16.
Jones, K. P., Peddie, C. I., Gilrane, V. L., King, E. B., & Gray, A. L. (2016).
Not so subtle: A meta-analytic investigation of the correlates of subtle
and overt discrimination. Journal of Management, 42(6), 1588-1613.
Judge, T. A., Locke, E. A., Durham, C. C., & Kluger, A. N. (1998).
Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core
evaluations. Journal of applied psychology, 83(1), 17.
Karavardar, G. (2014). Organizational Career Growth and Turnover
Intention: An Application in Audit Firms in Turkey. International
Business Research, 7(9), p67.
Kazi, G. (2011). Gender Discrimination in Job Opportunities and Impact
of Gender Awarness in Public Sector Organizations. Government
of Pakistan: Planning and Development Division/ Commission.
Keashly, L. (1997). Emotional abuse in the workplace: Conceptual and
empirical issues. Journal of emotional abuse, 1(1), 85-117.
Kirtan, G., & Greene, A. (2005). Gender, Equality and Industrial Relations
in the ‘New Europe’: An Introduction. European Journal of
Industrial Relation, 2, 141-149.
Krejcie, R.V., & Morgan, D.W. (1970). Determining sample size for
research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement,
30(3), 607-610.
Kumar, R., & Eng, K. G. (2012). Perceived organizational commitment
and its impact to the turnover intention: a correlation analysis.
Journal of global business and economics, 4(1), 40-57.
Malik, M. E., & Naeem, B. (2011). Impact of Perceived Organizational
Justice on Organizational Commitment of Faculty: Empirical
Evidence from Pakistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Research
in Business, 1(9), 92-98.
Malik, M. E., Nawab, S., Naeem, B., & Danish, R. Q. (2010). Job
Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment of University
Teachers in Public Sector of Pakistan. International Journal of
Business Management, 5(6), 17-26.
Margaret, Y., & Alison, K. (2009). Gender and Racial Differentials in
Promotions: Is There a Sticky Floor, a Mid-Level Bottleneck, or
a Glass Ceiling? Relations industrielles / Industrial Relations,
64(4), 593-619.
Merkin, R. (2008). Cross-Cultural Differences in Perceiving Sexual
Harassment: Demographic Incidence Rates of Sexual
Harassment/Sexual Aggression in Latin America North American
Journal of Psychology, 10(2), 277-290.
Meyer, J., Allen, N., & Smith, C. (1993). Commitment to organizations
and occupations: extension and test of a three-component
conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538-551.
Meyer, J. P., & Herscovitch, L. (2001). Commitment in the workplace:
Toward a general model Human Resource Management Review,
11, 299-326.
Murrell, A. J., Olson, J. E., & Frieze, I. H. (1995). Sexual Harassment and
Gender Discrimination: A Longitudinal Study of Women
Managers. Journal of Social Issues, 51(1), 139-149. doi: 10.1111/
j.1540-4560.1995.tb01313.x
Naz, S., & Gul, S. (2014). Moderating Role of Organizational Commitment
between Communication Satisfaction and Turnover Intentions
Among Nurses. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 29(1).
Nunnally. (1978). Psychometric theory New York: McGraw-Hill.
Oluwafemi, O. (2013). Predictors of Turnover Intention among Employees
in Nigeria’s Oil Industry. Organizations & Markets in Emerging
Economies, 4(2).
Ozer, G., & Gunluk, M. (2010). The effects of discrimination perception and
job satisfaction on Turkish public accountants’ turnover intention.
African Journal of Business Management 4(8), 1500-1509.
Özer, G., & Günlük, M. (2010). The effects of discrimination perception
and job satisfaction on Turkish public accountants’ turnover
intention. African Journal of Business Management, 4(8), 500-509.
Rahman, W. (2012). The Relationship of Attitudinal and Behavioural
Outcomes with Employee Development in the Context of
Performance Appraisal in Public Universities of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. PhD Academic, National University of Moderen
Langauges, Islamabad.
Rasool, F., Arzu, F., Hasan, A., Rafi, A., & Kashif, A. R. (2013). Workplace
Bullying and Intention to Leave: The Moderating Effect of the
Organizational Commitment. Information Management and
Business Review, 5(4), 175-180.
Rice, D. (1993). Equity theory: The pay satisfaction Construct (Doctor of
Philosophy, Dissertation), University of Alabama, Alabama.
Rubin, A., & Babbie, E. (2012). Brooks/cole empowerment series: essential
research methods for social work. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Schmitt, M., Ellemers, N., & Branscombe, N. (Eds.). (2003). Perceiving
and responding to gender discrimination at work. Philadelphia:
Psychology Press.
Schmitt, M., Nyla, R., Kobrynowicz, D., & Owen, S. (2002). Perceiving
Discrimination Against One’s Gender Group has Different
Implications for Well-Being in men and women. Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 197-209.
Shaffer, M. A., Joplin, J. R. W., Bell, M. P., Lau, T., & Oguz, C. (2000).
Gender Discrimination and Job-Related Outcomes: A Cross-
Cultural Comparison of Working Women in the United States and
China. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57, 395-427.
Shah, F. A., Habib, M. N., & Aamir, A. (2010). A Critical Evaluation of the Issue
of Gender Inequality in Pakistan s Labor Market. Interdisciplinary
Journal of Contemporary Reseach in Business, 2(1), 237-255.
Shah, F. A., & Rasli, A. (2015). A Meta Analytic Review of the
Relationship of Gender Discrimination with Organizational
Justice, Different Justice Theories and Job Related Outcomes.
Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science and
Technology, 2(1), 379-392.
Shami, U., Ali, N., & Rehman, Z.-u. (2015). Determinant’s of Job
Satisfaction & Employee Turnover in Pakistan Paint Industry.
European Journal of Business and Management, 7(1), 188-201.
Shapira-Lischshinsky, O. (2009). Gender in Management: An International
Journal Emerald Article: Israeli male versus female teachers’
intent to leave work. An International Journal, 24(7), 543-559.
Shaukat, S., Siddiquah, A., & Pell, A. W. (2014). Gender Discrimination
in Higher Education in Pakistan: A Survey of University Faculty.
E-itim Ara-t?rmalar?, 56(56).
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup
behavior. (2nd ed.). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Thomas, P., & Nagalingappa. (2012). Consequences Of Perceived Organizational
Justice: An Empirical Study of White-Collar Employees. Researchers
World: Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce, 3(2).
Tsai, M. (2012). An Empirical Study of the Conceptualization of Overall
Organizational Justice and Its Relationship with Psychological
Empowerment, Organizational Commitment and Turnover
Intention in Higher Education. (Doctor of Philosophy),
University of Washington, Washington.
Wayne. (1995). Managing Human Resource, Productivity, Quality of work
life, Profits (4th ed.). New Yourk: McGraw Hill Internationals.
Won-Jae, L., & Beto, D. R. (2008). Factors Associated with Adult
Probation Officer Turnover in Texas. Executive Exchange, 3-11.
Yuki, M. (2003). Intergroup comparison versus intragroup relationships:
A cross-cultural examination of social identity theory in North
American and East Asian cultural contexts. Social Psychology
Quarterly, 66, 166-183.
& Its Effect on Employee Performance/Productivity. International
Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(15), 171-176.
Abeer, I., & Faisal, T. (2013). Impact of gender bias on organizational
commitment: an empirical study of glass ceiling practices in corporate
sector of Pakistan. Elixir Human Res. Mgmt, 57, 14111-14115.
Ahmad, M. S., Fakhr, Z., Ali Shah, I., & Zaman, K. (2010). Measuring
push, pull and personal factors affecting turnover intention: a
case of university teachers in Pakistan. Review of Economic and
Business Studies (REBS)(5), 167-192.
Ahmad, R. (2010). Direct and interactive effects of organizational jusitce
and perceptions on personal and organizational outcomes. Ph.D
International Islamic University, Pakistan.
Al-Zawahreh, A., & Al-Madi, F. (2012). The Utility of Equity Theory in
Enhancing Organizational Effectiveness. European Journal of
Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences(46), 158-170.
Anne, M. (1996). The New Leaders: Leadership Diversity in America. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bakhsh, A., Kumar, K., & Rani, E. (2009). Organizational Justice Perceptions
as Predictor of Job Satisfaction and Organization Commitment.
International Journal of Business Management, 4(9), 145-154.
Barak, Nissley, & Levin. (2001). Antecedents to retention and turnover
among child welfare, social work and other human services
employees: What can we learn from past research? A review and
meta-analysis. Social Service Review, 75(4), 625-638.
Bilkis, A., Habib, S., & Sharmin, T. (2010). A Review of Discrimination in
Employment and Workplace. ASA University Review, 4(2), 137-150.
Byrne, B. M. (1998). Structural Equation Modeling with LISREL, PRELIS,
and SIMPLIS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming.
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Byrne, Z. S. (2005). Fairness reduces the negative effects of organizational
politics on turnover intentions, citizenship behavior and job
performance. Journal of Business and Psychology, 20(2), 175-200.
Channar, Z. A. (2010). Gender Discrimination in Workforce Through Stickey
Floor and Glass Ceiling Effects: A Study of Public and Private
Organizations of Pakistan. Ph.D, Isra University, Hyderabad, Pakistan.
Cheng, E. W. (2001). SEM being more effective than multiple regression
in parsimonious model testing for management development
research. Journal of management development, 20(7), 650-667.
Chung, Y. B. (2001). Work Discrimination and Coping Strategies:
Conceptual Frameworks for Counseling Lesbian, Gay, and
Bisexual Clients. The Career Development Quarterly, 50(1), 33-
44. doi: 10.1002/j.2161-0045.2001.tb00887.x
Dekker, I., & Barling, J. (1998). Personal and Organizational Predictors
of Workplace Sexual Harassment of Women by Men. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, 3(1), 7-18.
Dipboye, R., & Colella, A. (2005). Discrimination at work: The
psychological and organizational bases. New Jersey: Erlbaum.
Doleac, J. L., & Hansen, B. (2016). Does “ban the box” help or hurt low-skilled
workers? Statistical discrimination and employment outcomes when
criminal histories are hidden: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Elsik, L. G. (2009). The impact of gender discrimination on organizational
commitment and job satisfaction among female employees: Texas
A&M University-Kingsville.
Falkenburg, K., & Schyns, B. (2007). Work satisfaction, organizational
commitment and withdrawal behaviours. Management Research
News, 30(10), 708-723.
Felicia, C., & Octavian, M. (2012). Gender Discrimination in Management:
theoretical and Empirical Perspective. Transylvanian Review of
Administrative Sciences, 35, 153-172.
Foley, S., Hang-Yue, N., & Wong, A. (2005). Perceptions of Discrimination
and Justice: Are There Gender Differences in Outcomes? Group
and Organisation Management, 30(4), 421-450.
Foley, S., Ngo, H.-y., & Loi, R. (2006). Antecedents and consequences of
perceived personal gender discrimination: a study of solicitors
in Hong Kong. Sex Roles, 55(3-4), 197-208.
Gellatly, R., Meyer, J., & Luchak, A. (2006). Combined effects of the three
commitment components on focal and discretionary behaviors:
A test of Meyer and Herscovitch’s propositions. Journal of
Vocational Behavior 69, 331-345.
Griffeth, R., Hom, P., & Gaertner, S. (2000). A meta-analysis of antecedents and
correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research
implications for the millennium. Journal of Management, 26, 463–488.
Groff, K. (2012). Examining the Moderating Role of Organizational
Commitment in the Relationship between Shocks and Workplace
Outcomes. Doctor of Philosophy, University of South Florida, Florida.
Hair, J. F., Tatham, R. L., Anderson, R. E., & Black, W. (2006).
Multivariate data analysis (Vol. 6): Pearson Prentice Hall Upper
Saddle River, NJ.
Heilman, M. E. (2012). Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Research
in organizational Behavior, 32, 113-135.
Hunton, J., Neidermeyer, P., & Weir, B. (1996). Hierarchical and gender
differences in private accounting practice. Acconting Horizons,
10(2), 14-31.
Hussain, T., & Asif, S. (2012). Is employees’ turnover intention driven by
organizational commitment and perceived organizational support.
Journal of Quality and Technology Management, 8(2), 1-10.
ILO. (2007). Equality at work: Tackling the challenges. Geneva: International
Labour Office.
Iyer, A., & Ryan, M. K. (2009). Why Do Men andWomen Challenge
Gender Discrimination in theWorkplace? The Role of Group
Status and In-group Identification in Predicting Pathways to
Collective Action. Journal of Social Issues, 65(4), 791-814.
Iyigun, O., & Tamer, I. (2012). The Impact of Percieved Organizational
Justice on Turnover Intention: Evidence from an International Electronic
Chain Store Operating in Turkey. Journal of Global
Strategic Management, 11, 5-16.
Jones, K. P., Peddie, C. I., Gilrane, V. L., King, E. B., & Gray, A. L. (2016).
Not so subtle: A meta-analytic investigation of the correlates of subtle
and overt discrimination. Journal of Management, 42(6), 1588-1613.
Judge, T. A., Locke, E. A., Durham, C. C., & Kluger, A. N. (1998).
Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core
evaluations. Journal of applied psychology, 83(1), 17.
Karavardar, G. (2014). Organizational Career Growth and Turnover
Intention: An Application in Audit Firms in Turkey. International
Business Research, 7(9), p67.
Kazi, G. (2011). Gender Discrimination in Job Opportunities and Impact
of Gender Awarness in Public Sector Organizations. Government
of Pakistan: Planning and Development Division/ Commission.
Keashly, L. (1997). Emotional abuse in the workplace: Conceptual and
empirical issues. Journal of emotional abuse, 1(1), 85-117.
Kirtan, G., & Greene, A. (2005). Gender, Equality and Industrial Relations
in the ‘New Europe’: An Introduction. European Journal of
Industrial Relation, 2, 141-149.
Krejcie, R.V., & Morgan, D.W. (1970). Determining sample size for
research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement,
30(3), 607-610.
Kumar, R., & Eng, K. G. (2012). Perceived organizational commitment
and its impact to the turnover intention: a correlation analysis.
Journal of global business and economics, 4(1), 40-57.
Malik, M. E., & Naeem, B. (2011). Impact of Perceived Organizational
Justice on Organizational Commitment of Faculty: Empirical
Evidence from Pakistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Research
in Business, 1(9), 92-98.
Malik, M. E., Nawab, S., Naeem, B., & Danish, R. Q. (2010). Job
Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment of University
Teachers in Public Sector of Pakistan. International Journal of
Business Management, 5(6), 17-26.
Margaret, Y., & Alison, K. (2009). Gender and Racial Differentials in
Promotions: Is There a Sticky Floor, a Mid-Level Bottleneck, or
a Glass Ceiling? Relations industrielles / Industrial Relations,
64(4), 593-619.
Merkin, R. (2008). Cross-Cultural Differences in Perceiving Sexual
Harassment: Demographic Incidence Rates of Sexual
Harassment/Sexual Aggression in Latin America North American
Journal of Psychology, 10(2), 277-290.
Meyer, J., Allen, N., & Smith, C. (1993). Commitment to organizations
and occupations: extension and test of a three-component
conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 538-551.
Meyer, J. P., & Herscovitch, L. (2001). Commitment in the workplace:
Toward a general model Human Resource Management Review,
11, 299-326.
Murrell, A. J., Olson, J. E., & Frieze, I. H. (1995). Sexual Harassment and
Gender Discrimination: A Longitudinal Study of Women
Managers. Journal of Social Issues, 51(1), 139-149. doi: 10.1111/
j.1540-4560.1995.tb01313.x
Naz, S., & Gul, S. (2014). Moderating Role of Organizational Commitment
between Communication Satisfaction and Turnover Intentions
Among Nurses. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 29(1).
Nunnally. (1978). Psychometric theory New York: McGraw-Hill.
Oluwafemi, O. (2013). Predictors of Turnover Intention among Employees
in Nigeria’s Oil Industry. Organizations & Markets in Emerging
Economies, 4(2).
Ozer, G., & Gunluk, M. (2010). The effects of discrimination perception and
job satisfaction on Turkish public accountants’ turnover intention.
African Journal of Business Management 4(8), 1500-1509.
Özer, G., & Günlük, M. (2010). The effects of discrimination perception
and job satisfaction on Turkish public accountants’ turnover
intention. African Journal of Business Management, 4(8), 500-509.
Rahman, W. (2012). The Relationship of Attitudinal and Behavioural
Outcomes with Employee Development in the Context of
Performance Appraisal in Public Universities of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa. PhD Academic, National University of Moderen
Langauges, Islamabad.
Rasool, F., Arzu, F., Hasan, A., Rafi, A., & Kashif, A. R. (2013). Workplace
Bullying and Intention to Leave: The Moderating Effect of the
Organizational Commitment. Information Management and
Business Review, 5(4), 175-180.
Rice, D. (1993). Equity theory: The pay satisfaction Construct (Doctor of
Philosophy, Dissertation), University of Alabama, Alabama.
Rubin, A., & Babbie, E. (2012). Brooks/cole empowerment series: essential
research methods for social work. Boston: Cengage Learning.
Schmitt, M., Ellemers, N., & Branscombe, N. (Eds.). (2003). Perceiving
and responding to gender discrimination at work. Philadelphia:
Psychology Press.
Schmitt, M., Nyla, R., Kobrynowicz, D., & Owen, S. (2002). Perceiving
Discrimination Against One’s Gender Group has Different
Implications for Well-Being in men and women. Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 197-209.
Shaffer, M. A., Joplin, J. R. W., Bell, M. P., Lau, T., & Oguz, C. (2000).
Gender Discrimination and Job-Related Outcomes: A Cross-
Cultural Comparison of Working Women in the United States and
China. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57, 395-427.
Shah, F. A., Habib, M. N., & Aamir, A. (2010). A Critical Evaluation of the Issue
of Gender Inequality in Pakistan s Labor Market. Interdisciplinary
Journal of Contemporary Reseach in Business, 2(1), 237-255.
Shah, F. A., & Rasli, A. (2015). A Meta Analytic Review of the
Relationship of Gender Discrimination with Organizational
Justice, Different Justice Theories and Job Related Outcomes.
Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science and
Technology, 2(1), 379-392.
Shami, U., Ali, N., & Rehman, Z.-u. (2015). Determinant’s of Job
Satisfaction & Employee Turnover in Pakistan Paint Industry.
European Journal of Business and Management, 7(1), 188-201.
Shapira-Lischshinsky, O. (2009). Gender in Management: An International
Journal Emerald Article: Israeli male versus female teachers’
intent to leave work. An International Journal, 24(7), 543-559.
Shaukat, S., Siddiquah, A., & Pell, A. W. (2014). Gender Discrimination
in Higher Education in Pakistan: A Survey of University Faculty.
E-itim Ara-t?rmalar?, 56(56).
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup
behavior. (2nd ed.). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
Thomas, P., & Nagalingappa. (2012). Consequences Of Perceived Organizational
Justice: An Empirical Study of White-Collar Employees. Researchers
World: Journal of Arts, Science & Commerce, 3(2).
Tsai, M. (2012). An Empirical Study of the Conceptualization of Overall
Organizational Justice and Its Relationship with Psychological
Empowerment, Organizational Commitment and Turnover
Intention in Higher Education. (Doctor of Philosophy),
University of Washington, Washington.
Wayne. (1995). Managing Human Resource, Productivity, Quality of work
life, Profits (4th ed.). New Yourk: McGraw Hill Internationals.
Won-Jae, L., & Beto, D. R. (2008). Factors Associated with Adult
Probation Officer Turnover in Texas. Executive Exchange, 3-11.
Yuki, M. (2003). Intergroup comparison versus intragroup relationships:
A cross-cultural examination of social identity theory in North
American and East Asian cultural contexts. Social Psychology
Quarterly, 66, 166-183.
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Published
2019-07-15
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